Video
Lesson 11. Problem Solving and Decision Making: Where Everything Comes Together
Problem Solving & Decision Making: Integrating All Competencies
Did you know that the average person makes approximately 35,000 decisions every single day? Of these, around 100 to 200 are deliberate and require active cognitive effort, such as deciding what to eat or how to respond in a conversation. The vast majority, over 95%, are made subconsciously and include habitual actions, reflexes, and routine judgments.
Welcome to a lesson focused on developing PSDM in a command context. Here, you will learn how to apply structured decision-making models and integrate all CBTA competencies to manage complex, real-world scenarios. This is where knowledge, flight path management, workload management, situational awareness, leadership, and communication come together to support safe and effective outcomes.
PSDM represents the pinnacle of your development. It is where all competencies combine—enabling you, as a Captain, to assess, decide, and act with clarity and confidence.
From small choices like what to eat for breakfast to critical decisions in high-stakes environments, our brains are constantly at work.
On the flight deck, decision-making is not just an individual process—it is a Captain’s responsibility. In command, you are accountable for integrating information, managing uncertainty, and guiding the crew toward a safe and effective outcome. Understanding how decisions are made—and how they can degrade under workload, stress, and ambiguity—is essential to maintaining control of the operation.
This is where structured problem solving and decision making (PSDM) becomes critical.
Welcome to a lesson focused on developing PSDM in a command context. Here, you will learn how to apply structured decision-making models and integrate all CBTA competencies to manage complex, real-world scenarios. This is where knowledge, flight path management, workload management, situational awareness, leadership, and communication come together to support safe and effective outcomes.
PSDM represents the pinnacle of your development. It is where all competencies combine—enabling you, as a Captain, to assess, decide, and act with clarity and confidence.
AI Narration
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- Learn and practice using models like FORDEC, RMATE and ANCAAM, for safe, timely decisions.
- Combine knowledge, flight path management, application of procedures, workload management, situational awareness, communication and leadership and teamwork in realistic situations.
- Use feedback and self-assessment to refine your decision-making skills.
- Develop habits and strategies to excel in assessments and real-world operations.
Decision making can be a complex, team focused process.Blocks below are hidden until a learner clicks this.
Structured Decision-Making Models: The Core of Command
Structured decision-making models are essential tools for pilots, providing a clear, defensible process for making safe choices in both routine and emergency situations. Models like FORDEC, RMATE and ANCAAM, help crews analyse information, weigh options, and act decisively, ensuring that decisions are timely, logical, and support operational safety.
Explore the structured models that guide cockpit decision-making. Each item below breaks down a model used in aviation for safe, effective choices.
FORDEC
FORDEC stands for Facts, Options, Risks, Decision, Execution, Check. This model guides crews through a logical sequence: gather facts, generate options, assess risks, make a decision, execute the plan, and check the outcome. It is especially useful for complex or ambiguous situations where collaboration is needed.
The model was developed (or at least formalised) through work by Lufthansa and the German Aerospace Center (DLR) around the early-1990s as part of CRM/aircrew decision-making frameworks.
RMATE
RMATE stands for Recognise the situation, Maintain control of the aircraft, Assess the problem, Take appropriate action, Evaluate the need to land. This model emphasises continuous monitoring and adaptation, encouraging crews to reassess and adjust as situations evolve.
It is well-suited for ongoing, dynamic scenarios where evolving threats or system degradations require a flexible and cyclic approach rather than a single linear decision point.
Although not formally attributed to a specific manufacturer, RMATE is commonly found in Boeing training materials and airline CRM syllabi aligned with Boeing operations. Its origin appears to be industry-derived rather than proprietary, possibly evolving from practical flight operations and line-training environments rather than academic or regulatory frameworks. As such, it has become a practical, operator-level decision aid rather than a formally standardised model like FORDEC.
ANCAAM
ANCAAM stands for Aviate, Navigate, Communicate, Assess, Action, Manage. This sequential model is well-suited to time-critical events, ensuring flying the aircraft remains the top priority before moving through structured assessment and action steps.
It helps maintain order and focus under pressure, especially during high workload or emergency scenarios.
ANCAAM builds on the traditional “Aviate–Navigate–Communicate” mantra and appears to be an instructional extension developed within training and CRM environments. While not formally standardised by ICAO or regulators, it is increasingly used in threat-and-error management and CBTA-aligned syllabi as a practical decision-making aid.
Choosing the Right Model
While different decision-making models have varying strengths and applications, the key is selecting an approach that aligns with how you think and operate under pressure.
In command, decisions must be timely, clear, and confidently delivered. Understanding your own decision-making tendencies allows you to apply a model that feels natural and effective—supporting structured thinking rather than slowing it down.
This alignment is critical. A model that fits your thought process enables you to assess situations more clearly, communicate intent effectively, and guide the crew with confidence when it matters most.
In command, decisions must be timely, clear, and confidently delivered. Understanding your own decision-making tendencies allows you to apply a model that feels natural and effective—supporting structured thinking rather than slowing it down.
This alignment is critical. A model that fits your thought process enables you to assess situations more clearly, communicate intent effectively, and guide the crew with confidence when it matters most.
AI Narration
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RMATE is suited for scenarios that evolve over time, such as weather diversions or extended troubleshooting. It encourages continuous evaluation and flexibility.
Use RMATE to stay ahead of changing conditions and adapt as needed.
Use RMATE to stay ahead of changing conditions and adapt as needed.
Choosing the right PSDM process is more than a decision—it's a reflection of how you think, plan, and solve. Align your process with your mindset, and you'll unlock clarity, efficiency, and success like never before.
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Expanding on ANCAAM
As you transition into command, you are taking on a significant increase in responsibility, workload, and decision-making demand. Adopting a structured decision-making model that is intuitive, simple, and easy to recall under pressure is essential to support your development.
The goal is not to memorise multiple complex models, but to use one that fits naturally with your thinking—helping you maintain clarity, structure, and confidence as you build experience in the Captain’s role.
For these reasons, let’s take a closer look at the individual elements of the ANCAAM model.
This model has been selected for further focus because it is practical, intuitive, and easy to remember, particularly in high-workload situations. It aligns closely with the core aviation priority of Aviate, Navigate, Communicate, reinforcing the need to maintain aircraft control while managing the situation.
To enhance its effectiveness in a command context, two additional steps have been incorporated (adapted from the RMATE model):
- Recognise the Situation (initial step)
- Decide / Evaluate the need to land (after ACTION and before MANAGE)
Explore the sections below to develop a deeper understanding of how ANCAAM can support your decision-making in command.
Recognise
Identify current flight status and abnormalities using EICAS/ECAM Primary Flight Display (PFD) and other flight instruments. Awareness is the foundation for effective command decisions.
Aviate
Use the PFD as the prompt for this step. Maintain aircraft control by managing pitch, power, and configuration. If available, ensure the autopilot is engaged in the mode appropriate for the situation. (Continue climb? Reduce ROC? Level off?, Descend?)
Navigate
Use the Navigation Display (ND) to prompt you for this step, and other tools to ensure safe spatial positioning, route adherence, and obstacle avoidance during flight operations.
Given the situation, should you stay on track, turn off track, go into a hold, or commence an immediate turn back towards your departure airport or towards a diversion airport?
Given the situation, should you stay on track, turn off track, go into a hold, or commence an immediate turn back towards your departure airport or towards a diversion airport?
Communicate
Use the comms panel to prompt you for this step. Should you make an immediate call to ATC, or can that wait till memory items or checklists are completed?
At the very least, this a great time for a mini brief with your co-pilot about your immediate plans ("let's action this checklist once we're through 10,000ft")
At the very least, this a great time for a mini brief with your co-pilot about your immediate plans ("let's action this checklist once we're through 10,000ft")
Assess
Evaluate the situation continuously by integrating data from instruments, weather reports, crew feedback, and operational context to guide decision-making.
The majority of the time, your EICAS/ECAM will provide you with answers, but complex or confusing scenarios may require deeper consideration to ensure the correct checklists are actioned.
The majority of the time, your EICAS/ECAM will provide you with answers, but complex or confusing scenarios may require deeper consideration to ensure the correct checklists are actioned.
Action
Execute the agreed short term plan, including completing checklists and coordinating tasks to ensure safe and effective implementation.
Wherever possible, complete all non-normal checklist before moving to the next phase (decision), as the completed checklists are likely to be helpful for the decision making process.
Wherever possible, complete all non-normal checklist before moving to the next phase (decision), as the completed checklists are likely to be helpful for the decision making process.
Decide
This comes down to three options: determine whether to continue the flight, return to the departure airport, or divert, based on the updated situation, aircraft status, and operational considerations.
This may be an obvious decision; the checklist says "land at the nearest suitable airport, and that choice is obvious, and can be made by the crew themselves. Or, it might be less urgent, and require collaboration with company operations to decide the best operational option.
In either case, you'll need to further consider three aspects in your diversion decision.
Can you get there? (Fuel, aircraft technical state)
Can you land when you get there? (Weather, Approach aids, performance)
What happens after you land? (tech turn around support, passenger support)
This may be an obvious decision; the checklist says "land at the nearest suitable airport, and that choice is obvious, and can be made by the crew themselves. Or, it might be less urgent, and require collaboration with company operations to decide the best operational option.
In either case, you'll need to further consider three aspects in your diversion decision.
Can you get there? (Fuel, aircraft technical state)
Can you land when you get there? (Weather, Approach aids, performance)
What happens after you land? (tech turn around support, passenger support)
Manage
Use this phase to follow through on the decision made (continue, divert, return). A simple nemonic - WWPPC - can really help:
Weather
Weight (aligned with performance)
Purser
Passengers
Company
We'll expand on this in the next section.
Weather
Weight (aligned with performance)
Purser
Passengers
Company
We'll expand on this in the next section.
Expanding on the "Manage" Phase.
Once you've made your decision to continue, divert or return, - and after considering the three questions: can you get there, can you land when you get there, and what support will you have after you land - you'll need to move on to the manage phase. A simple, easy to remember nemonic for this part of the PSDM model is "W W P P C" - Weather, Weight (includes performance), Purser, Passengers, Company.
Review the following sections to understand more about this handy aide memoire.
Review the following sections to understand more about this handy aide memoire.
🌦 Weather
Evaluate destination and alternate weather, including winds, visibility, runway condition and forecasts.
⚖️ Weight (including landing performance)
Ensure landing weight is within limits. If not, jettison or overweight landing? Consider runway length and conditions. Consider brake temperatures.
🧑✈️ Purser
Communicate with the cabin crew leader via a structured “NITS” briefing. Check cabin status, coordination, and issues.
👥 Passengers
Communicate with the passengers. Use clear, calm messaging. Use the same simplified “NITS” format. Avoid delegating this to the Purser if at all possible. The passengers want to hear from the Captain!
🏢 Company
This may have already have been done during the "Decide" phase. If not, coordinate with dispatch and operations. Align with policy and ensure support is available. Use NITS format for clarity. Use ACARS message to ground/diversion message if available and time is short.
Understanding the ANCAAM Model
In high-pressure situations, having a clear mental model of your problem-solving process can significantly enhance decision-making. The ANCAAM model provides a structured approach, making it easier to recall essential steps even under stress. Watch the following video to explore how this model can support effective problem-solving.
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Developing Command Decision Confidence
For many new Captains, one of the most challenging aspects of the transition is assuming full responsibility for decision-making. After years of operating within a structured, supportive role as a First Officer, there can be a natural tendency to seek reassurance or defer decisions—particularly to company operations or more experienced voices.
This tendency can be even more pronounced in strongly hierarchical cultures, where deference to authority is ingrained. In such environments, new Captains may hesitate to make independent decisions, even when they are fully empowered—and expected—to do so.
While the company is an important support partner, it does not replace command responsibility. Over-reliance on external input can delay decision-making and reduce clarity in time-critical situations.
Developing confidence in command means recognising when to seek input—and when to decide. It requires trusting your training, applying structured decision-making models, and accepting accountability for the outcome.
This is a skill that develops with experience, but it must be approached deliberately. Effective Captains use company resources to support their decisions—not to make them.
This tendency can be even more pronounced in strongly hierarchical cultures, where deference to authority is ingrained. In such environments, new Captains may hesitate to make independent decisions, even when they are fully empowered—and expected—to do so.
While the company is an important support partner, it does not replace command responsibility. Over-reliance on external input can delay decision-making and reduce clarity in time-critical situations.
Developing confidence in command means recognising when to seek input—and when to decide. It requires trusting your training, applying structured decision-making models, and accepting accountability for the outcome.
This is a skill that develops with experience, but it must be approached deliberately. Effective Captains use company resources to support their decisions—not to make them.
The Captain and the Company: A Command Partnership.
Company as a Support Partner
The airline provides essential operational information, resources, and guidance to assist the Captain’s decision-making process without replacing command authority.
When to Consult the Company
Consult the company during non-urgent situations such as system abnormalities, operational options, or when logistical support for fuel, medical or alternate airports is needed.
Captain's Independent Authority
In emergencies or rapidly changing scenarios, the Captain must act decisively and independently to ensure safety, notifying the company only after securing the aircraft.
The Company is your partner - but you are the decision maker. Use the company to enhance decision-making, not to avoid it. In time-critical events, act first, consult second. The company supports safe, timely, command-led decisions.
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When to involve the company.
Understanding the dynamic between the crew and the company is essential for effective decision-making. This relationship evolves depending on the situation, requiring clear communication and mutual trust. By analyzing various scenarios, teams can identify patterns and improve collaboration. Use the table below to explore key insights and strengthen this partnership.
Time Permits
Time permits (e.g., system abnormality with no immediate consequence)
Support needed
Support needed for logistics or planning (e.g., fuel, medical arrangements)
Operational options exist
Operational options exist (e.g., choosing among alternates, where company operations may have a the "bigger picture" on which en-route alternate may be better for operational efficiency.)
When NOT to wait for the Company
In emergencies or rapidly deteriorating situations, delays in decision-making can compromise safety. The Captain must act immediately, using knowledge, training, SOPs, and best judgment. Consultation can come later—after the aircraft is safe.
The Company as a Decision Partner
Understanding the dynamic between the crew and the company is essential for effective decision-making. This relationship evolves depending on the situation, requiring clear communication and mutual trust. By analyzing various scenarios, teams can identify patterns and improve collaboration. Use the table below to explore key insights and strengthen this partnership.
| Situation Type | Role of the Captain | Role of the Company |
|---|---|---|
| Emergency/Time-Critical | Lead decisively, act without delay. | Notify after safety is ensured. |
| Operational Delay/Option | Consult when time permits. | Offer information, not commands. |
| Non-Urgent Tech/Dispatch | Make informed decisions, escalate if unsure. | Provide guidance based on policy/SOP. |
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Integrating CBTA Competencies in Real-Time
Effective decision-making in aviation is never isolated—it requires the seamless integration of all CBTA competencies. Knowledge, workload management, communication, leadership, situational awareness, and procedural discipline all contribute to making sound, timely decisions that keep flights safe and efficient.
Each CBTA competency plays a vital role in the decision-making process. Expand each item to see how these skills support safe, effective choices in the cockpit.
Each CBTA competency plays a vital role in the decision-making process. Expand each item to see how these skills support safe, effective choices in the cockpit.
Knowledge and Procedures
Technical knowledge and procedural discipline provide the foundation for identifying options and assessing risks. Knowing the aircraft, systems, and SOPs is essential for informed decisions.
Procedures guide actions and help ensure compliance and safety.
Procedures guide actions and help ensure compliance and safety.
Work Management
Managing workload ensures you have the capacity to analyze, decide, and act. Prioritizing tasks and delegating responsibilities prevent overload and support clear thinking.
Effective workload management is critical during high-stress events.
Effective workload management is critical during high-stress events.
Communication & Leadership
Open communication and strong leadership facilitate input, buy-in, and clarity. Leaders encourage team participation and ensure that all voices are heard before making decisions.
Clear communication prevents misunderstandings and supports coordinated action.
Clear communication prevents misunderstandings and supports coordinated action.
Situational Awareness
Maintaining a broad, accurate mental model of the situation allows you to anticipate outcomes and adjust plans as needed. Situational awareness is the glue that ties all competencies together.
It helps crews stay ahead of the operation and respond proactively.
It helps crews stay ahead of the operation and respond proactively.
Integrated decision-making is the ultimate test of professionalism—where your knowledge, skills, and leadership come together to shape safe outcomes.
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Decision-Making in Action: Scenarios
Click through each scenario to reflect on your approach and discuss with others. Use these prompts to deepen your understanding and prepare for real-world application.
How do you factor legal requirements and company policies into your decisions, especially when under pressure? What resources or support can you draw on?
Explore the balance between compliance and operational flexibility.
Explore the balance between compliance and operational flexibility.
Continuous Improvement and Feedback
Refining your decision-making skills is an ongoing process. Expand each item to learn strategies for continuous improvement and effective feedback.
Debriefing Decisions
After every significant event or training session, review what worked, what didn’t, and why. Honest debriefs help identify strengths and areas for growth.
Make debriefing a routine part of your learning process.
Make debriefing a routine part of your learning process.
Seeking Peer and Instructor Feedback
Actively seek feedback from colleagues and instructors. Outside perspectives can reveal blind spots and offer new strategies.
Be open to constructive criticism and use it to refine your approach.
Be open to constructive criticism and use it to refine your approach.
Tracking Patterns and Biases
Monitor your own decision-making patterns and watch for recurring biases or tendencies. Awareness is the first step to overcoming them.
Setting Personal Growth Goals
Set specific, measurable goals for improving your PSDM skills. Regularly review your progress and adjust your strategies as needed.
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Case Study: FedEx Flight 1376
Discover how a structured PSDM model played a crucial role in managing the complexities of FedEx Flight 1376. This case study highlights the integration of multiple competencies to ensure a safe and effective resolution. By examining this scenario, learners can gain valuable insights into the practical application of PSDM in real-world challenges.
FedEx 1376 Chattanooga, Oct 2023
Incident Overview. Loss of the left hydraulic system due to hose fatigue, followed by the failure of the alternate gear extension system due to a broken wire.
Aircraft Involved. B757-200 Freighter.
Crew Response. Crew eventually conducted a gear up landing following a complex problem solving process.
Outcome. Despite skidding off the runway, there were no injuries.
Key Lesson. FedEx 1376 shows how structured decision-making and calm execution across all CBTA competencies can turn a high-risk dual system failure into a safe landing. It’s a clear example of how competency training translates directly to operational safety.
Reviewing the Key Competencies Bought Together:
Problem Solving and Decision Making
Summary: All Competencies in Action
✔ PSDM at the center of crew performance
✔ Integrated use of all 9 CBTA competencies
✔ Textbook example of professional crew behavior under pressure
Aircraft Involved. B757-200 Freighter.
Crew Response. Crew eventually conducted a gear up landing following a complex problem solving process.
Outcome. Despite skidding off the runway, there were no injuries.
Key Lesson. FedEx 1376 shows how structured decision-making and calm execution across all CBTA competencies can turn a high-risk dual system failure into a safe landing. It’s a clear example of how competency training translates directly to operational safety.
Reviewing the Key Competencies Bought Together:
Problem Solving and Decision Making
- Interpreted a complex dual failure
- Assessed QRH options and alternate procedures
- Made timely decisions: where to land, how to land
- Showed structured reasoning under pressure
- Controlled approach and descent despite degraded systems
- Performed accurate gear-up touchdown
- Despite leaving the paved surface, the crew kept the aircraft upright.
- QRH for HYD L loss, ALT GEAR EXTENSION failure
- Escalated to engineering and dispatch
- Configured aircraft per gear-up landing checklist
- Tracked aircraft systems status and risks
- Managed energy state and descent profile
- Maintained mental model of degraded aircraft
- Clear delegation of roles
- Prioritized actions during high-stress phases
- Avoided overload by managing pace and flow
- Strong CRM and mutual support in cockpit
- Captain led decisively but included FO input
- Briefings and tasks shared effectively
- Maintained clear comms with ATC and dispatch
- Used assertive but calm radio calls
- Coordinated emergency services and evacuation preparation
- Applied deep understanding of 757 systems
- Recognized interdependencies (hydraulics, gear, steering)
- Used QRH and FCOM appropriately
✔ PSDM at the center of crew performance
✔ Integrated use of all 9 CBTA competencies
✔ Textbook example of professional crew behavior under pressure
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Key Tips: Problem Solving & Decision Making
Expand each item to review key tip takeaways from this lesson.
Sketch your thinking — literally
Create a quick visual map in your head (or even on paper during the debrief) of the steps you take when solving problems. In high-pressure moments, pictures stick better than mnemonics. You’ll recall a flow, not just a phrase.
Pick a model that feels natural — then stick with it
Whether it’s ANCAAM, FORDEC, or something else, go with the one that matches how you think under pressure. ANCAAM is often the simplest to recall, but the best model is the one you’ll actually use when the clock is ticking.
Use your model on the “easy” stuff too
Got a small tech issue? Treat it like a practice run. Walk through your PSDM model even if it feels like overkill. It builds muscle memory for when it really counts — and helps you refine your flow.
Same model = shared brain
Most airlines don’t prescribe one PSDM method, but if you and your PM/FO use the same model, it’s easier to spot what’s missing. “Wait — we haven’t considered alternatives yet” is only useful if you both know what the steps are.
Say your logic out loud
Don’t just announce your decision — show your working. Saying “We’re overweight for the return, so let’s take 10 minutes to burn, then approach” helps the whole crew align and builds confidence in your leadership.
When in doubt, verbalise the fork in the road
If you’re torn between two options, say so: “We can either hold and wait this out or get it on the ground now — here’s what I’m thinking.” It brings your FO or PM into the decision, keeps communication flowing, and avoids snap judgments.
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Check Your Understanding: Decision-Making Mastery
The following questions are designed to reinforce the key concepts from this lesson and help you assess your readiness for advanced modules. Reflect on your answers and identify any areas for further review.
Knowledge Check
1. Which structured decision-making model is best suited for time-critical scenarios requiring immediate action?
Knowledge Check
2. After a challenging simulator session, what is the best way to ensure continuous improvement in your decision-making skills?
Knowledge Check
3. What is the primary purpose of structured decision-making models like FORDEC, RMATE, and ANCAAM in aviation?
Knowledge Check
4. What is the primary purpose of the WWPPC mnemonic in the decision-making process?
Knowledge Check
5. Which parts of the ANCAAM model focus on putting the aircraft in a desirable state?
Summary and Looking Ahead
In this lesson, you explored structured decision-making models, practiced integrating all CBTA competencies, reflected on scenario-based application, and learned strategies for continuous improvement and assessment preparation. Ongoing engagement with PSDM is essential for safe, effective command.
In the next lesson, you’ll build on these skills by focusing on threat and error management to complement the nine competencies you've studied so far.
In the next lesson, you’ll build on these skills by focusing on threat and error management to complement the nine competencies you've studied so far.